The use of fingerprints for identification purposes has a long and storied history, with several figures making key contributions over centuries. However, most historians agree that a 19th century Englishman named Sir Francis Galton was the first person to conclusively prove the uniqueness of fingerprints and develop a classification system that formed the basis for modern fingerprint identification.
The Early History of Fingerprinting
The use of fingerprints dates back thousands of years. Fingerprints imprinted on clay tablets and seals during ancient Babylon circa 1900-1700 BC provide some of the earliest examples of fingerprint use. Fingerprints were also used in ancient China during the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC) to authenticate documents. In the 14th century, the Persian physician Ibn al-Mutazz wrote about the individuality of fingerprints and suggested using them to identify children switched at birth.
In the late 16th century, a prominent Italian physician named Girolamo Mercuriale noted fingerprint ridges, swirls and pores were permanent and could be used to identify individuals. In the 18th century, German anatomist Johann Christoph Andreas Mayer made observations about the permanency and uniqueness of fingerprints that presaged their potential use for identification.
The Pioneering Work of Jan Evangelista Purkinje
In 1823, Czech anatomist and physiologist Jan Evangelista Purkinje published a thesis discussing nine fingerprint patterns. This was the first systematic approach to classifying fingerprints based on general patterns rather than individual characteristics. Purkinje proposed that fingerprints could be used for identification, noting that the patterns were permanent and unlikely to be identical in two individuals.
Purkinje’s Fingerprint Patterns
| Pattern Name | Description |
|---|---|
| Plain Arch | Fingerprint lines flow from one side to the other without rising or falling |
| Tented Arch | Similar to plain arch but with an upthrust in the middle |
| Radial Loop | Pattern flows from one side with a loop that points toward the thumb |
| Ulnar Loop | Pattern flows from one side with a loop that points toward the little finger |
| Spiral Whorl | Circular pattern with lines radiating from a central point |
| Double Loop | Two separate loop formations within the print |
| Central Pocket Loop | Loop with a circular pattern at the core |
| Lateral Pocket Loop | Loop with a circular pattern on the side |
| Accidental Whorl | Whorl with irregular or disjointed pattern |
While rudimentary compared to modern classification systems, Purkinje’s nine patterns represented an important early attempt to methodically categorize and describe fingerprint patterns. This paved the way for the development of more sophisticated systems down the road.
Sir William Herschel’s Fingerprinting in India
The next major developments occurred in India during the mid 19th century, driven by British administrator Sir William Herschel. From 1858 to 1859, Herschel instituted the use of fingerprints and handprints as signatures on native contracts in India. However, his motivations had more to do with preventing fraud than identification. Herschel believed that illiterate signatories would be less likely to repudiate contracts they had physically signed with their fingerprints.
While Herschel recognized that fingerprints were unique, he did not propose a classification system or suggest fingerprints could be used to establish an individual’s identity. Nonetheless, his introduction of fingerprinting in India for contractual purposes represented an important milestone and set the stage for further advancements.
Henry Faulds Establishes Fingerprint Uniqueness
In the late 1870s, Scottish surgeon Dr. Henry Faulds made a breakthrough discovery – fingerprints could be used not just for signing contracts but definitively identifying individuals. Faulds noticed fingerprint traces on archaeological artifacts and realized the same techniques could be applied to identifying criminals. After conducting extensive experiments, Faulds became convinced of the uniqueness of fingerprints and their potential as a forensic tool.
In 1880, Faulds published an article in the journal Nature laying out his findings and advocating the use of fingerprints for police identification purposes. He also forwarded his conclusions to Charles Darwin, who shared them with his cousin Francis Galton. This correspondence between Faulds and Darwin helped generate interest in fingerprints within the scientific community.
Francis Galton’s Pioneering Research
Building on Faulds’ discoveries, Francis Galton conducted groundbreaking research on fingerprints that established their uniqueness and paved the way for modern fingerprint identification.
Key Contributions of Galton
- Conducted the first statistical analysis of fingerprint patterns, measuring commonalities and differences
- Proved no two fingerprints were exactly alike, even among twins
- Developed techniques for classification based on patterns
- Pioneered the use of fingerprints in forensics
- Established basis for modern system of fingerprint identification
In the 1888 book Finger Prints, Galton described how he methodically analyzed thousands of fingerprints to categorize patterns and variations. By comparing a large sample size, he demonstrated empirically that no two fingerprints were exactly alike. Galton also refuted notions that fingerprints were identical among twins.
Building on Purkinje’s initial classification system, Galton developed more advanced techniques for categorizing print patterns into loops, whorls and arches. He introduced additional granular sub-groupings within these categories. Galton’s approach formed the foundation for modern fingerprint classification schemes.
Galton played a key role in pioneering forensic applications. He helped Scotland Yard use fingerprint evidence in criminal investigations and lobbied for its acceptance in court. By the early 20th century, his research had conclusively established the uniqueness of fingerprints and their viability for identification in both forensics and law enforcement.
Later History
In the early 20th century, other researchers built upon Galton’s work to further refine fingerprint identification techniques.
Major Developments After Galton
- 1900 – Scotland Yard adopts fingerprinting for criminal identification
- 1901 – First U.S. fingerprint identification in a criminal case
- 1902 – Fingerprint classification system published by Sir Edward Henry
- 1904 – U.S. Army begins recording soldiers’ fingerprints
- 1924 – FBI founded fingerprint identification division
- 1968 – First automated fingerprint recognition system
- 1999 – FBI launches intergrated automated fingerprint identification system
In 1902, Sir Edward Henry published a landmark book formalizing Galton’s classification system into primary groupings of loops, whorls and arches. Henry introduced sub-groupings and sequence of fingerprint characteristics that became the basis for modern identification approaches.
Law enforcement agencies worldwide rapidly adopted fingerprinting during the early 1900s. By the 1920s, fingerprints had become a standard identification technique in police work across the U.S. and Europe. In 1924, the FBI established its Identification Division, based around a fingerprint card catalog system created by Hoover.
Automation accelerated fingerprint identification starting in the 1960s. Early Primitive systems were developed in the 1960s-70s, giving way to more advanced automated fingerprint identification systems (AFIS) by the 1990s. AFIS allowed rapid computerized matching of prints. As processing power and recognition algorithms improved, digital automation transformed fingerprint identification.
Conclusion
While fingerprints were used to sign contracts and authenticate documents for centuries, Sir Francis Galton was the pioneer who proved their uniqueness and permanently established fingerprint identification as a forensic science. Through meticulous analysis and classification, Galton demonstrated conclusively that no two fingerprints were alike. His work enabled fingerprints to be systematically used for individual identification and laid the foundation for modern forensic fingerprinting.
Galton built on centuries of observation by doctors and scholars, as well as William Herschel’s real world use of fingerprints in India. However, his statistical analysis and pioneering forensic applications took fingerprinting to a new level. By the early 20th century, Galton’s insights on fingerprint classification and uniqueness were widely accepted throughout law enforcement and academia.
Subsequent innovations like automated fingerprint identification further improved techniques. But modern fingerprinting traces its origins back to Galton’s 19th century breakthroughs. His empirical approach established the foundation that fingerprint identification continues to build upon today.