Many people wonder who exactly is in charge of hell. While hell is often depicted as a place of eternal suffering and torment for damned souls, it must have some type of hierarchy or leadership to maintain order. In this article, we will explore beliefs about who leads hell in different religions and mythologies throughout history.
The Devil in Christianity
In Christianity, the most common ruler of hell is Satan, also known as the Devil. The Bible refers to Satan as the “prince of demons” and the “god of this world” indicating his power and authority. Though Satan was originally an angel named Lucifer who rebelled against God and fell from heaven, he is now considered the embodiment of pure evil and the lord of hell.
Passages from Revelation describe Satan as a “great red dragon” who is hurled down from heaven with his angels and imprisoned in a bottomless pit for 1,000 years during the events of the apocalypse. Satan is also described as a fallen star that is given the key to a bottomless pit to release hordes of locust-like demons onto the earth.
These passages depict Satan as a powerful being that commands legions of demons and the pits of hell. He is able to influence mankind through temptation and deceit, seeking to turn people away from God. Though Satan does not have infinite power, he wields great authority over other demonic spirits and the realms of hell.
Other Rulers in Christian Tradition
While Satan is the highest authority in hell in most Christian traditions, some additional rulers and demons have been identified:
- Beelzebub – Name meaning “Lord of the Flies,” he is sometimes equated with Satan or depicted as Satan’s second-in-command.
- Lucifer – The original name of Satan before his rebellion and fall.
- Leviathan – A mighty sea monster or serpent mentioned in the Bible. Associated with Satan and the forces of evil.
- Asmodeus – The demon of lust, also considered an archdemon or overlord of hell’s governance.
- Belial – The demon of wickedness, also considered a prince of hell.
- Mammon – The demon of greed and wealth.
These powerful demons are sometimes shown ruling over different parts of hell or layers of the underworld. However, Satan remains the ultimate ruler and authority over all demonic forces and souls trapped in hell.
Hades and Persephone in Greek Mythology
In ancient Greek mythology, the underworld realm was known as Hades. (Note: Hades was also the name of its ruler.) The Greek underworld was not considered a place of punishment and torture as hell is depicted today, but rather the gloomy domain of the dead.
Hades ruled this underworld kingdom with his queen, Persephone. According to myth, Hades abducted Persephone from the world above to become his bride. Her mother Demeter, goddess of the harvest, eventually compelled Hades to agree to let Persephone return to the surface world for part of the year, resulting in the seasons of growth and harvest.
As rulers of the underworld, Hades and Persephone presided over the spirits of the dead. Important features of their realm included:
- Elysium – Paradise where heroes and the blessed afterlife awaited.
- Tartarus – Pit of torment deep within Hades where the wicked were punished.
- Asphodel Meadows – Realm of ordinary or indifferent spirits.
Hades administered justice and supervised the transition of souls but was not actively involved in tormenting the wicked. Instead, sinners were punished either by judgment of deceased mortal judges or by avenging spirits like the Furies.
Cerberus – Guard Dog of Hades
While not a ruler, an important inhabitant of the Greek underworld was Cerberus. This monstrous multi-headed dog guarded the gates of Hades and ensured the dead could not leave while the living could not enter.
In his Twelve Labors, Hercules was tasked with capturing Cerberus alive, which he accomplished before returning the beast to Hades. Cerberus demonstrates that while Greek myths did not depict overt eternal suffering in the afterlife, Hades did imprison souls and required protective forces like Cerberus.
Hel in Norse Mythology
In Norse mythology, the underworld and abode of the dead was known as Hel or Helheim. (Much like the Greek Hades, the ruler of Helheim was also named Hel.) Accessible only by crossing the treacherous Gjallarbrú bridge, Helheim was a world of cold, dampness, and gloom.
Hel was depicted as a grotesque or half-dead woman. She governed the souls of those who perished of illness or old age. Some accounts state she would feast with the souls of the dead in her hall, Éljúðnir. Other dead who were judged worthy went to the god Odin’s hall Valhalla instead.
While Hel and her underworld domain were not places of punishment for wicked mortals, to die and end up in Hel was still considered a tragic fate in Norse myths. Heroes hoped to meet their end in battle and be taken to Valhalla rather than dying peacefully and descending into Helheim and the kingdom of the goddess of death.
Loki and the Hounds of Helheim
The trickster god Loki was imprisoned in Helheim after leading the gods to their doom at Ragnarök. He was chained to rocks by the entrails of his son Narfi, with poison from a serpent dripping onto his face. Loki’s wife Sigyn collects the drops of venom in a bowl, but when she turns to empty it, the dripping venom causes Loki to writhe in pain, creating earthquakes.
Helheim was also home to supernatural canines. Hel was attended by two hounds, Garmr and Móinnir, who guarded her realm. Garmr in particular was prophecised to break free and battle the gods at Ragnarök, before being killed by the god Tyr. These mythical hounds guarded Hel just as Cerberus did for Hades in the Greek myths.
Yama and Lord of Hell in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions
Early Vedic mythology described Yama as the first mortal to die and the ruler of the departed. The Hindu texts known as the Puranas later expanded on Yama’s rule over Naraka or hell, where souls are punished for their misdeeds on earth before being reincarnated into a new life.
In both Hindu and Buddhist tellings, Yama reviewed each soul’s actions in life and meted out punishment in one of the many levels of Naraka before allowing them to be reborn on earth. Extremely wicked souls were doomed to agonizing torture in hell for eons before escaping rebirth.
Kali as Ruler of the Hindu Underworld
In some traditions, the Hindu goddess Kali is portrayed as ruling over not only death but the underworld and hell itself. She represents the inevitable destruction of time. Kali assumes her most terrible appearance and associations in the cremation grounds, where she dwells surrounded by ghosts and jackals.
As a destructive embodiment of universal forces, Kali is sometimes considered superior to Yama in her governance of the afterlife. Her epithets linking her to death and the underworld include Lady of Death, Dark Mother of the Underworld, and Queen of the Burning Grounds.
Diyu and the Ten Kings in Chinese Mythology
Chinese traditions describe Diyu, or the underworld, as a bureaucracy with many levels of fortified cities and complex courts administering justice for the deceased. Ten Yama Kings preside over the ten courts of Diyu, each with jurisdiction over souls guilty of particular sins.
The Ten Kings are themselves subject to Yanluo Wang, the Great King Yama – who presides over Diyu from his palace. Yanluo decides if souls will be reincarnated, punished in hell, or ascend to higher realms or paradises after fulfilling their time in Diyu.
Souls pass through complex judgement processes in each court, where the Kings order appropriate punishments for crimes committed in life. Punishments range from boiling cauldrons, grinding mills, cold and ice, and dismemberment by demonic officials and beasts.
Ox-Head and Horse-Face – Guardians of Hell
In Chinese tradition, two figures named Ox-Head and Horse-Face guard the gates of hell and escort condemned souls to their place of punishment. They ensure no condemned souls can escape their fate.
Ox-Head holds a register of the living and erases the names of people the moment they die. Meanwhile, Horse-Face records the names of the newly dead and monitors their allotted life span on earth. Together they reflect the transition from the living to afterlife realms overseen by Yanluo Wang.
Anubis and Osiris in Ancient Egyptian Religion
According to ancient Egyptian beliefs, the god Anubis oversaw the journey of deceased souls into the afterlife. Anubis guided souls through judgment and on their path through the underworld. His even greater role was conducting embalming and funeral rites that allowed the soul to survive death.
Anubis weighed the deceased’s heart against the Shu feather of truth and integrity. Heavy hearts revealing impurity would be devoured by the demon Ammit. But light and righteous hearts would be presented to Osiris, god and judge of the dead.
Osiris presided over the court where souls entered the afterlife. Through righteous living, souls could join the entourage of Osiris. However, the wicked were condemned to oblivion. Osiris provided the model of resurrection and eternal life Egyptian nobles hoped to emulate through elaborate burial customs.
Ammut – Devourer of Souls
While not a ruler of the underworld, the Egyptian demoness Ammut played an important role in punishing souls judged impure. Also called “Devourer of the Dead”, Ammut sat by the scales during Anubis’ weighing of the heart ceremony. Any hearts heavier than the feather of Maat were tossed to Ammut, who would devour the soul and condemn it to the void.
Ammut’s unappeasable hunger for sinful souls and ability to wipe them from existence entirely made her one of the most feared entities in the Egyptian underworld.
Erlik Khan in Mongolian Shamanism
The Mongolian conception of the underworld derived from shamanic beliefs surrounding Erlik Khan or Erlik, lord of the underworld. According to legend, Erlik was originally part of the good spirits that existed in harmony. However, he was banished to the underworld after committing many crimes.
Erlik now punishes both the wicked and virtuous in his shadowy realm below the earth. He is often depicted as sharing features with animals, especially wolves, cattle, pigs, or dogs. Erlik causes illness to spread, stirs jealousy and conflict, and demands bloody sacrifices. Shamans act as mediators, making spiritual journeys to the underworld to bargain with Erlik to protect people from his wrath.
While not an overt place of punishment for sinners, Erlik Khan’s domain was still something to be feared, avoided, and appeased. His association with disease, misfortune, and death caused him to be placated but never worshipped.
Meng Po – Lady of Forgetfulness
An important inhabitant of the Mongolian underworld is Meng Po, known as the “Lady of Forgetfulness.” When souls prepare for reincarnation, they drink from Meng Po’s soup of oblivion, causing them to forget completely their previous lives on earth before being reborn into a new body.
This reflects the Mongolian belief that souls are doomed to an endless cycle of reincarnation. Meng Po’s soup ensures no soul brings memories or lessons from one life into the next. She represents a clean slate and the beginning of a new existence of suffering controlled by Erlik Khan.
Izanami No Mikoto in Japanese Shinto
According to Shinto mythology, the goddess Izanami no Mikoto was the first female deity born from the void along with her male counterpart, Izanagi no Mikoto. Together they populated the Japanese islands and gave birth to the many Shinto gods.
When Izanami died giving birth to the fire god Kagu-tsuchi, she descended into Yomi-no-kuni, the night land of the dead. Here she dwelled in perpetual gloom as the gods of Japan mourned her. Izanagi followed her but fled in horror when he saw her transformed state in the underworld.
After being rejected by Izanagi, she cursed him and pursued him from the underworld, becoming a figured called Yomotsu-shikome. She had to promise not to take other lives to appease the angered gods. She now rules Yomi as the ominous goddess of death and night who oversees deceased souls.
Shinigami in Japanese Mythology
While Izanami rules the underworld, Japanese myths also describe more active psychopomps, or spirits who guide the dead. These are the Shinigami – personifications of death who invite souls into the afterlife. They are featured extensively in modern Japanese pop culture.
Shinigami are portrayed with dark robes and wide-brimmed hats, carrying notebooks or scythes to collect souls. They reflect the continued influence of death deities like Izanami as well as imported imagery like the Western Grim Reaper.
Supay in Incan Mythology
In traditions of the indigenous Incan Empire, the underworld was called Ukju Pacha. It was ruled over by the god Supay, who was both a judge of souls and a protector of the dead. Anthropomorphic figurines of Supay adorned Incan graves and ritual offerings were made to him.
According to legend, Supay carried a small pouch containing sinners’ souls. Good souls he sent to Paradise, where they assisted the sun god Inti. However, he punished the wicked by tormenting them in the Ukju Pacha’s freezing coldness and darkness. The worst sinners were condemned to Avíci, the Incan version of hell.
Supay therefore determined the fate of souls based on the virtuousness or evil deeds they accumulated in life. He was greatly feared by the Incas, who made offerings to him to avoid ending up in Avíci hell.
The Catholic Church later demonized Supay, using him to represent the devil. Despite this, some Andean cultures maintain belief in Supay ruler of spirits good and evil.
Mictlantecuhtli in Aztec Mythology
For the Aztecs, the god Mictlantecuhtli was the fearsome lord of the underworld Mictlan, the “place of the dead.” With his wife Mictecacíhuatl, he ruled over nine distinct levels of the underworld where different types of souls were tested and even tormented after death.
Depicted as a skeletal figure often covered in blood, Mictlantecuhtli personified both death and the regenerative power of the underworld. Ritual bloodletting and human sacrifice were seen as ways to nourish and honor him. He was not concerned with passing judgment, only collecting souls and presiding over the different Mictlan ordeals they faced.
After four years traveling through Mictlan’s dangers, the deceased soul would finally reach peaceful rest in Mictlan Omeyocan. Thus Mictlantecuhtli signifies death as part of the natural cycle of life rather than a punishment or place of eternal suffering.
Xolotl – The Dog God
Mictlantecuhtli was aided by Xolotl, the canine god of fire and lightning. Xolotl would guide souls through the underworld and fight off monstrous beings threatening their journey. In Aztec art, he was depicted as a monster dog or skeleton dog.
Xolotl discovered corn and brought fire to mankind from Mictlan, linking the underworld to the cycle of growth. He also associated with Venus and would usher in the morning star. His many roles make him a versatile psychopomp and fearsome underworld entity.
Conclusion
Many cultures throughout history developed rich myths about rulers of the underworld and afterlife. While known by many names across these traditions, the god or deity in charge of the dead is often depicted as a formidable and frightening figure.
However, they usually are not directly responsible for punishing souls. Rather, they oversee a system of judgment, such as the weighing of souls’ hearts against the feather of truth in Egyptian myths. They may rely on subordinate beings like the Hindu goddess Kali or the Egyptian demon Ammit to carry out punishments.
The rulers of the underworld reflect both a fear of death and a hope for eternal life. They represent the transition between the living world and whatever exists beyond. Underworld guardians like Cerberus or Xolotl protect the line between life and afterlife. Meanwhile, entities like Meng Po facilitate reincarnation in Eastern traditions.
So while hell is commonly perceived as eternity in the fiery pit, mythology paints a much more nuanced picture. The diversity of afterlife realms and their associated deities shows the creative ways humans have envisioned life beyond death across cultures and millennia. The rulers of these realms embody both our terror of what lies beyond and our timeless struggle for meaning in mortality.