Throughout history, there have been instances where people were forced to convert to Islam. However, it is important to examine the context behind these events to fully understand the motivations and circumstances surrounding forced conversions. Overall, while forced conversion has occurred at times, it goes against core Islamic principles of freedom of religion.
Early Muslim Conquests
In the early years of Islam’s spread from the Arabian Peninsula starting in the 7th century CE, armies led by the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphates conquered large areas of territory. This included lands previously under Byzantine and Sassanid Persian control, such as Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Persia.
When Muslim armies defeated rival powers, they gave the populations in the conquered lands three options: convert to Islam, remain Christian or Jewish but accept Muslim rule and pay the jizya tax, or continue fighting the Muslims. Those who chose to remain Christian or Jewish were called dhimmis. They could maintain their religious beliefs and rituals but had to abide by certain restrictive regulations. over time, some dhimmis converted to Islam to gain full equality with the conquering Muslims. However, there is little evidence that forced conversions occurred on a large scale.
One exception was the conversion of the Berbers of North Africa in the late 600s and early 700s CE. Historical accounts indicate some Berbers were compelled to convert after resisting the Arab conquests. However, not all Berbers were forced – some adopted Islam voluntarily over the decades. The Berbers went on to make significant contributions to Islamic civilization.
The Iberian Peninsula
Starting in the early 8th century CE, Arab and Berber Muslim armies conquered territory in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal). They faced resistance from the ruling Christian Visigoths and established the region of al-Andalus. Some historians state that Jews and Christians were forced to convert to Islam. However, other scholars emphasize that conversion was not coerced in an organized way. While social and economic advantages may have motivated some to convert, Jews and Christians continued to practice their faiths openly in al-Andalus for centuries.
India
In the Indian subcontinent, Muslims rulers such as Mahmud of Ghazni, Mohammad Ghori, and the Mughal Empire gained control over Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms from 1000-1700s CE. Some scholars argue that these conquerors forced mass conversions of Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains to Islam. However, other historians refute this claim, citing evidence that a majority of the Indian population remained non-Muslim even after centuries of Islamic rule. While some rulers like Aurangzeb discriminated against non-Muslims through higher taxes, destruction of temples, and other policies, outright forced conversions were not as widespread as sometimes claimed.
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire encompassed large areas of territory in Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa from the 1300s-1900s CE. Christians made up a sizable portion of the empire’s population, including Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians, Serbs, Albanians, and others. The Ottomans did not have a policy of compelling Christians to convert to Islam. However, some devshirme practices involved forced removal and conversion of Christian boys to be trained as elite soldiers and bureaucrats.
In the Ottoman millet system, Christians and Jews were organized into communities that had religious freedom but faced some taxes and legal restrictions. Some devout Christians resisted conversion strongly, undergoing hardship and even martyrdom. However, economic and social advantages did motivate some people to voluntarily adopt Islam over time.
Persia and Central Asia Under Turkic Rule
Starting in the 1000s CE, waves of Turkic tribes, including the Seljuks and Timurids, conquered Persia, as well as Central Asian regions such as Samarkand and Bukhara. These Turkic peoples had converted to Islam and established states where they ruled over large Persian and Central Asian populations. There is some documented evidence that certain rulers compelled Persians and Central Asians to convert to Islam. The Persian Safavid dynasty also later imposed forced conversion of Sunnis to Shia Islam after conquering parts of Iran and the Caucasus.
Africa
In West Africa, events such as the Almoravid movement in the 11th century CE and the Fulani War in the early 1800s CE involved some coerced conversions to Islam. However, in many parts of Africa, Islam spread through peaceful means, trade, and the efforts of Sufi missionaries. Voluntary conversion was more common than forced conversion overall.
In East Africa, the rapid consolidation of Muslim Swahili Coastal city-states in the 1700s-1800s CE did involve some coercion of African traditionalist populations. The Omani Arabs who exerted control over Mombasa and other Swahili Coast cities compelled Bantus living in their hinterlands to adopt Islam.
Spain
In Spain during the late 1400s and early 1500s, after the end of Muslim rule, the Catholic Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella mandated Jews and Muslims living within their domains to convert to Christianity or face expulsion. This resulted in mass forced conversions of both Jews and Muslims in Spain, although some were able to eventually flee the country.
Balkans Under Ottoman Rule
In the Balkans region under centuries of Ottoman control, there were some instances where Christian Slavic peoples such as Serbs and Bulgarians were coerced into converting to Islam. The Ottoman devshirme system that forcibly recruited boys for the military involved intake, conversion, and turkification of South Slavs. Some joined voluntarily while other families resisted strongly. High taxes on Christians and advantages of conversion motivated some to become Muslim.
19th Century Russia
In the Caucasus region during the 1800s within the Russian Empire, there was a decades-long military campaign to subdue resistance from Muslim populations. Russians forcibly converted some Circassian, Chechen, and Dagestani communities to Orthodoxy during this period as a form of control and suppression.
20th Century Nigeria
In Nigeria during the early to mid 1900s, the native Hausa elites of the north pressured Christians to convert to Islam. However, British colonial authorities stopped these forced conversions when they consolidated control over Nigeria. Subsequently, Nigeria’s Christians were able to openly practice their faith under British rule.
Analysis
Based on these historical examples, while forced conversion happened in particular contexts, other factors were often more impactful in the process of Islamization over the centuries. These include:
- Voluntary conversion for social and economic mobility reasons
- Gradual peaceful conversion through trade, intermarriage, and missionary activity
- Demographic shifts
- Conversions of rulers and elite classes first
Most scholars agree that although forced conversions occurred in limited cases, Islam’s spread was more generally characterized by non-coercive means. The Qur’an expressly forbids forced conversion and guarantees freedom of religion. However, political expediency, economic incentives, and social pressures did play roles in conversion over time.
Conclusion
In summary, forced conversion has occurred in particular instances over Islamic history. However, it violated Islamic principles and was overall less significant than voluntary conversion. Contextual political, economic, and social factors accounted for most cases of coerced conversion of religious minorities. Therefore, while forced conversion formed a part of Islamization processes in some times and places, it was not the standard or dominant means of conversion.