Life expectancy in ancient Egypt was influenced by a variety of factors including period, region, social class, gender, and access to medicine. Records from the time provide an insight into the approximate ages that ancient Egyptians could reach.
Life Expectancy by Period
Life expectancy fluctuated over the 3,000 years of ancient Egyptian history. In the Old Kingdom period (2700 BCE – 2200 BCE), life expectancy is estimated to have been around 35 years. However, by the time of the New Kingdom (1550 BCE – 1069 BCE), life expectancy had risen to around 50 years.
Several factors contributed to this rise in life expectancy. Improvements in nutrition and living conditions, advances in medical knowledge, and greater accessibility to medical care all helped increase the average lifespan. The more stable and prosperous conditions of the New Kingdom meant people were generally healthier and better nourished than in earlier periods.
Life Expectancy by Region
Where someone lived in Egypt also affected their lifespan. People living in urban areas near the Nile River tended to live longer than rural folk. Cities like Memphis and Thebes offered easier access to food supplies, medical care, and other amenities that could improve health.
The marshy swamplands of the Nile delta were prone to diseases like malaria and schistosomiasis that would cut lives short. Similarly, those living in the barren deserts far from the Nile had shorter life expectancies due to harsher environments, physical labor, and lack of access to fresh food and water.
Life Expectancy by Social Class
Ancient Egyptian society was highly stratified, with clear divisions between social classes. The life expectancy of nobles and royalty was markedly higher than that of commoners and servants.
The wealthy had access to the best food, housing, and medical care in the land. Nobles lived in large homes with gardens and ponds. They ate bread, meat, fish, fruit, vegetables, and beer. Laborers often slept on dirt floors in small huts and subsisted on basic food like onions, beans, and beer. Naturally, the nutrition and living conditions of the elite enabled longer lifespans.
Additionally, nobles and royals could afford the attention of the best physicians and magical healers in Egypt. Poorer Egyptians had little recourse to medicine and relied on folk remedies and spells for curing illnesses.
Life Expectancy by Gender
Men and women had differing average life expectancies in ancient Egypt. Men tended to live longer than women, which parallels global historical trends. The strains of pregnancy and childbirth took a toll on women’s health and longevity.
However, women of the elite classes could better avoid these health risks. They married later, spaced out pregnancies, and had access to trained midwives reducing their mortality rates. Poorer women often died from complications in childbirth. Additionally, poor nutrition made them prone to succumbing to childbirth fevers.
Men were more likely to work dangerous jobs like mining and building which carried occupational hazards. However, aristocratic men could avoid manual labor leading to longer lives. The pharaohs enjoyed the greatest longevity of all Egyptians due to their pampered lifestyles and access to many comforts and physicians.
Evidence of Life Expectancy
Scholars look to various records and remains to estimate life expectancy in ancient Egypt. Sources like archaeological sites and tomb inscriptions provide clues to typical lifespans.
Mummified Remains
Mummies give direct anthropological evidence about health and age at death. Analysis of skeletal remains can determine age based on signs of wear, tear, and fusion. Mummified organs can also show evidence of disease.
From studying mummified bodies, scholars found common causes of death included malaria, schistosomiasis, tuberculosis, infections, parasites, arteriosclerosis, and trauma from accidents. Such diseases cut lives short so finding them supports lower life expectancy estimates.
Tomb Burial Records
Tombs often listed the deceased’s name, parents’ names, and age at death. While records are patchy, Egyptologists can study patterns in tomb age data over time. Burial records generally support rising life expectancy from the Old to New Kingdoms.
For example, 5th dynasty burial records from 2465-2323 BCE show average ages at death around 35 years. But 19th dynasty records from 1292-1190 BCE show averages around 50 years. Better nutrition and medicine likely explain this rise over time.
Government Records
State records on temple offerings and civil service also hold clues about how long people lived. They list names, jobs, payments, and in some cases ages or reigns served under pharaohs. This data helps establish ranges for adult working life which can support lifespan estimates.
For example, records of craftsmen working on royal tombs show workers active for periods suggesting lifespans of 40 to 50 years during the New Kingdom period from 1500 – 1000 BCE.
Causes of Death in Ancient Egypt
The leading causes of death influenced typical life expectancy in ancient Egypt. Based on medical texts, human remains, and other records, scholars identified the major fatal diseases and health risks faced by Egyptians.
Infectious Diseases
Living in close proximity to animals and the Nile River surrounded Egyptians with bacteria and parasites. These infectious agents caused diseases like:
- Malaria – Spread by mosquitos in swampy areas
- Schistosomiasis – Caused by a water parasite
- Tuberculosis – Bacterial lung infection
- Polio – Viral infection causing paralysis
- Leprosy – Disfiguring skin disease
- Gastroenteritis – Stomach ailments like diarrhea
Egyptians tried to treat these conditions with spells, natural remedies, and some medicines. But lack of knowledge about germs meant many fell victim to contagious epidemics.
Occupational Hazards
Many Egyptians performed hard physical labor under harsh working conditions. Occupational risks included:
- Construction accidents – Falls, crush injuries, etc.
- Mining accidents – Rockfalls, cave-ins, etc.
- Heavy lifting – Leading to back injuries and joint pain
- Toxic exposures – Mercury, lead, dust, etc.
- Repetitive stress injuries
- Pneumoconiosis – Lung disease from particles inhaled during stoneworking
Those performing dangerous work in mines, quarries, and construction sites faced risks of serious or fatal accidents from an early age. The pharaoh also conscripted peasant laborers to build temples and monuments, and work conditions could be treacherous.
Violence
While ancient Egypt saw periods of stability and peace, violence also cut lives short including:
- Warfare – Battles against foreign enemies and civil strife
- Crime – Theft, banditry, etc.
- Accidents – Fires, animal attacks, drowning, etc.
Soldiers and police officers had hazardous occupations. Corporal punishment like beatings was common. The violent death of young men in war would lower overall male life expectancy.
Childbirth Risks
Giving birth was risky for both mothers and babies without modern medicine. Complications included:
- obstructed labor
- hemorrhaging
- sepsis
- eclampsia
Malnourishment left poor women at greater risk of dangerous childbirth complications. However, wealthy women could afford better nutrition and care from trained midwives.
Accidents
Accidents posed risks in everyday life including:
- Snake bites
- Scorpion stings
- Falls
- Drowning
- Burns
- Animal attacks
- Getting trampled by cattle
- Food poisoning
While minor mishaps might injure people, serious accidents could swiftly turn fatal. Bone fractures from falls were also dangerous without modern surgery and casts.
Access to Medicine in Ancient Egypt
The ancient Egyptians had some sophisticated medical knowledge which helped offset risks of injuries and disease. But access was not equal across Egyptian society.
Medical Knowledge
Egyptian doctors could set bones, stitch wounds, and bandage injuries. Surgical procedures were performed to treat wounds and abscesses. Doctors had access to medicines made from herbs, minerals, and other ingredients to treat internal ailments.
The famous Ebers Papyrus from 1550 BCE listed over 700 magical formulas and remedies targeting various ailments and symptoms. Egyptian doctors diagnosed and treated conditions like rheumatism, diarrhea, parasites, coughs, colds, and fevers.
Access for the Wealthy
Nobles and royalty received medical care from trained physicians attached to their households. Doctors like Hesy-Ra served successive kings and treated workers who built royal tombs.
The wealthy hired personal doctors and paid for expensive magical cures. Queens could afford care from midwives during childbirth unlike poor women relying on female relatives. Better care reduced mortality risks for the elite.
Access for the Poor
Commoners without means had limited access to medicine and doctors were sparse in rural areas. They resorted to folk remedies handed down generations and spells to cure sickness.
Many peasants never saw a doctor in their lives. They might gain care in exchange for food if an itinerant doctor passed through town. Temple healing wards offered basic care to the poor as charity.
Overall, lack of access to preventative medicine and treatment made death from illness more likely for the poor. But even meager medical care could make a difference in life expectancy.
| Social Class | Medical Care Access | Impact on Life Expectancy |
|---|---|---|
| Royals | Personal doctors, best treatments | High, 50-70 years |
| Nobles | Household doctors, magical cures | High, 40-60 years |
| Merchants/skilled craftsmen | Some access to traveling doctors | Moderate, 30-50 years |
| Peasants | Folk remedies, limited medicine | Low, 20-40 years |
Impact of Diet on Health
Diet and nutrition also affected longevity in ancient Egypt. The rich enjoyed plentiful food while the poor survived on coarse bread, onions, and beer.
Diet of the Wealthy
Nobles and royals ate a varied, protein-rich diet including:
- Bread, porridge, cakes
- Meat from cattle, geese, fish
- Wine, beer, milk
- Dates, figs, melons, grapes
- Olives, vegetables like onions, garlic, lettuces
- Fresh fruits like pomegranates, plums, peaches
- Herbs and spices for flavor
The wealthy enjoyed multiple feasts while peasants often struggled to get daily calories. Better nutrition reduced risks of deficiencies and disease among the elite.
Diet of the Poor
Poor Egyptians subsisted on barley or emmer wheat bread, onions, beans, dates, and beer. Luxuries like meat and fruit were rare.
Bad Nile floods or droughts could devastate crops causing food shortages. Famines would disproportionately affect the poor, leaving them weak from malnutrition and prone to sickness.
Lack of food variety led to vitamin deficiencies impairing immunity. Poor nutrition was linked to stunted growth, birth defects, and cognitive problems in children. Malnourishment left the poor more vulnerable to infectious disease, parasites, and premature death.
Conclusion
Life expectancy in ancient Egypt ranged from the 20s to 50s over its 3,000 year history. Average lifespans increased between the Old Kingdom and New Kingdom due to better nutrition, living conditions, and medical care. Nobles and royalty enjoyed the greatest longevity thanks to wealth and privilege. Gender, occupation, and region also influenced one’s lifespan. Infectious disease, accidents, and violence took many lives prematurely. With a modern perspective on ancient health, scholars continue working to deepen our understanding of this fascinating civilization.