Sanskrit, the ancient language of India, has a rich vocabulary related to the concept of luxury. In Sanskrit texts spanning philosophy, political science, and literature, we find insightful discussions around the true meaning of luxury and its place in society.
The Complex Meaning of Luxury
In English, the word “luxury” generally refers to something that provides pleasure or comfort but is not absolutely necessary. Luxury connotes indulgence in finer things. But in Sanskrit, the conception of luxury is more complex.
Several Sanskrit words like bhoga, aisvarya, opulences and kama express overlapping aspects of luxury and material pleasures. These words have philosophical and ethical implications in Sanskrit literature.
Bhoga
The word bhoga refers to enjoyment or consumption of material objects. It alludes to seeking sensory pleasures through the five senses. Bhoga is used for pleasures arising from possessions, entertainment, relationships, food, etc.
Ancient Sanskrit texts recognize that human life requires basic comforts and enjoyment (bhoga). But they caution against excess attachment to sensory pleasures. Overindulgence in bhoga is criticized for being morally and spiritually distracting.
Aisvarya
Another salient term is aisvarya, meaning wealth, prosperity or affluence. It signifies the wealth and dominion associated with luxury and power. In sacred texts, gods are often described as possessing aisvarya to indicate their prosperity and status.
Aisvarya is seen ambivalently. On one hand, material wealth and success are recognized as rewards for ethical living. On the other hand, excessive wealth and dominion are cautioned against as leading to arrogance and vice.
Vitta
The word vitta refers to economic wealth, property and resources. Vitta is seen as a requirement for sustaining life and livelihoods. But ancient scholars like Kautilya also highlight the temptations of amassing excessive vitta, which may breed injustice in society.
Texts advise that vitta must be acquired and used ethically, for individual fulfillment as well as social welfare. Only then can it be considered true wealth rather than simply money.
Opulence
Another notable term is opulence, referring to abundant wealth. Gods like Kubera were custodians of opulence in their role as ‘Lords of Wealth’. Abundance of resources and possessions was seen as a sign of divine grace.
Yet opulence also symbolized lack of restraint. Ancient texts advised against chasing opulence as it promoted greed rather than virtue. Becoming intoxicated by luxurious possessions was seen as morally compromising.
Kama
The word kama means desire and pursuit of sensory pleasure. It refers to fulfilment of wants regarding entertainment, relationships, aesthetics, leisure, and luxury. Ancient societies recognized kama as a fundamental human goal.
But texts also highlight philosophical and ethical implications of uncontrolled kama. Unrestrained desires for sensory gratication were considered a recipe for social and moral disorder.
Thus, Sanskrit discourse recognized material pleasure but emphasized balance and ethical conduct. Luxury beyond basic comforts was treated cautiously as it carried moral risks.
Luxury in the Arthashastra
The ancient political treatise Arthashastra has detailed discussions on economics and governance. It describes normative guidelines on acquisition and consumption of luxury.
The text deines basic living standards for diferent social classes. Anything signiicantly above these minimum levels constitutes luxury (opulence). But luxury is not universally condemned.
For kings and elite, the Arthashastra actually prescribes enjoyment of opulence through services, goods and establishments. This luxury is justified as reflecting their status and power. But luxury should still avoid extremes and focus on dignity, not just indulgence.
For general citizens, luxury is tolerated as an outcome of ethical economic activity. But the text discourages obsessive materialism beyond basic necessities and savings.
So the Arthashastra takes a nuanced stand. It recognizes the place of luxury in society but emphas insulating both elites and masses from its corrupting extremes.
Kautilya on Wealth and Luxury
Kautilya, author of the Arthashastra, offers extensive counsel on ethical acquisition and use of possessions:
- Accumulate wealth through diligence but avoid harming others.
- Spend wealth to satisfy ordinary and extraordinary needs while donating surplus to noble causes.
- Do not hoard possessions beyond justification as it harms social welfare.
- Avoid vain splurging on luxury to impress others.
- Balance enjoyment of legitimate pleasures with spiritual and self-improvement activities.
This guidance highlights that luxury should not compromise broader individual and social interests. Luxury within reason was accepted, but not unlimited materialism, waste or ostentation.
Debates on Renunciation and Luxury
Ascetic traditions in ancient India encouraged renunciation (tyaga) of worldly possessions and pleasures. Voluntary simplicity and minimalism were seen as paths to spiritual liberation.
In contrast, radical philosophers like Charvakas professed materialistic hedonism. They encouraged enjoyment of arts, food, beauty and other pleasures as ends in themselves.
But moderate thinkers sought balance between asceticism and hedonism. They prescribed ethical conduct within worldly life (pravrtti) over withdrawal from society.
Thinkers like Kautilya did not renounce possessions, but advised tempered materialism. Others sought discipline over extremes of luxury and austerity.
Ancient scholars thus grappled with aligning ordinary human desires for comforts and pleasures with loftier individual and social obligations. The discourse did not universally renounce luxury but sought to situate it within a matrix of ethical, spiritual and social priorities.
Elite Luxury vs. Masses
The Arthashastra and other ancient texts reveal two broad perspectives on luxury:
Elite Luxury
- Royals and elites were allowed comforts and indulgences befitting their station.
- But their consumption was expected to follow norms of dignity and restraint.
- Excessive sensual gratification was criticized as unbecoming of high status.
Masses
- Ordinary citizens could enjoy legitimate pleasures and possessions from ethical work.
- But obsession over luxury, especially by imitating elites, was discouraged.
- Masses were advised to follow principles of moderation and savings.
So while luxury itself was not universally condemned, ancient thinkers were skeptical of its unbridled pursuit, especially by the general populace.
Tools of Luxury and Comfort
Various material tools and techniques for pleasure and comfort are mentioned in Sanskrit literature as symbols of luxury living:
| Tools of Luxury |
|---|
| Ornate homes, vehicles, furniture |
| Gardens, vineyards, recreation parks |
| Fine linens, silks, cottons, furs |
| Jewelry, perfumes, cosmetics |
| Exotic foods, wines, confections |
| Musical instruments, dancers, entertainers |
| Objects of art, sculpture, literature |
| Attendants, servants |
But mere accumulation of luxurious possessions is criticized in many texts as superficial and distracting from deeper priorities of life.
Criticism of Luxury in Sanskrit Literature
Several Sanskrit stories and wise sayings convey criticism of excessive luxury:
Moral Corruption
- Unbridled luxury is seen as breeding vice, erosion of social empathy, and neglect of spirituality.
- The pleasures of affluence make people morally weak, greedy and egocentric.
Hypocrisy of Opulence
- Ostentatious luxury to impress others is considered vain and hypocritical.
- Outward jewels and perfumes cannot mask inner flaws and suffering.
Fleetingness of Comforts
- No amount of luxury and comfort can shield against impermanence and mortality.
- Death and loss ultimately take away all possessions and force reflection on deeper aspects of life.
These perspectives critically examine the superficiality, hypocrisy and fleetingness of excessive, self-indulgent luxury.
Positive Depictions
Sanskrit literature also contains positive depictions of luxury:
- Divine and natural abundance seen as expressions of beauty and grace.
- Human creativity transforming resources into objects of utility and beauty for righteous living.
- Enjoyment of arts, nature, companionship and food with mindfulness and detachment.
- Balanced material prosperity supporting dignified living, philanthropy and spirituality.
Such positive perspectives emphasize that luxury aligned with goodness can uplift human civilization. But restraint and ethics are vital.
Conclusion
The Sanskrit conception of luxury is sophisticated. It recognizes the place of human desire for comforts and joys. But it balances this acceptance with an ethical framework prioritizing self-discipline, spirituality and social welfare.
Unlimited materialism is seen as dangerous, especially when driven by ego, greed and vanity. But luxury with a larger purpose earns qualified affirmation. The highest luxuries are highlighted as those nourishing the soul rather than just the senses.
This nuanced outlook continues to offer wisdom in our age of consumerist excess coexisting with unmet needs. Sanskrit offers a compass to reflect on what luxuries to seek, which to avoid, and how to find fulfillment beyond superficial pleasures.