Petra, the ancient city carved into the sandstone cliffs of southern Jordan, is one of the world’s most iconic and mysterious archaeological sites. This ancient city was the capital of the Nabataean kingdom in antiquity and was a major trading hub along the silk and spice routes. After a period of decline, the city was ultimately abandoned and lost to history until it was rediscovered in 1812. Ever since, scholars have pondered what exactly caused the downfall of this magnificent city.
When did Petra flourish?
Petra rose to prominence around the 6th century BCE when the Nabataean Arabs chose it as their capital. The Nabataeans were a nomadic Arab people who had previously lived in the Arabian deserts. They were skilled traders and merchants who leveraged Petra’s location along important trade routes. By the 4th century BCE, Petra had become a prosperous trade center handling goods moving between China, India, the Mediterranean, and Arabia. It sat at an intersection between the Red Sea and the Dead Sea, perfectly positioned to profit from overland trade.
The Nabataean Arabs were master builders, carving elaborate buildings, tunnels, water channels and tombs directly into the sandstone cliffs surrounding the valley of Petra. At its peak around the 1st century CE, Petra was a marvel of ancient architecture and engineering. The city had expanded to house 20,000-30,000 inhabitants who enjoyed advanced water management systems, temples, markets, baths, gardens and lavish private homes decorated with mosaics and frescoes. The iconic building at Petra is the Treasury, or Al-Khazneh, a massive Hellenistic facade carved out of a cliff face. Other notable tombs carved into the cliffs include the Street of Facades, the Corinthian Tomb and the Palace Tomb.
When did Petra start to decline?
After centuries of prosperous trade, power and influence, Petra began a prolonged decline starting around the 2nd century CE. Several factors combined to erode the Nabataean control of regional trade routes and ultimately render the desert city obsolete.
The most significant factor was the shifting of trade routes. As the Roman Empire expanded, new maritime trade routes were established that bypassed Petra and the overland routes through Arabia. The Romans constructed a new port city on the Red Sea called Aila (modern day Aqaba, Jordan) that became a new hub for sea trade down the Red Sea to India. With trade increasingly moving across sea routes, Petra was reduced to an isolated backwater location.
Another major blow was the Roman annexation of the Nabataean kingdom in 106 CE. The kingdom came under direct Roman control, causing economic decline and stagnation. The Nabataeans lost their independence and ability to leverage Petra’s strategic location for trade.
With trade dwindling, Petra also suffered from several devastating earthquakes in the 4th century CE that destroyed infrastructure and buildings. It never fully recovered from the economic downturn and natural disasters.
When was Petra ultimately abandoned?
Petra did not become a ghost town overnight. The decline occurred gradually over centuries as merchants, traders and inhabitants abandoned the dusty city in favor of other urban centers. However, a series of events in the 7th century CE seems to have represented the final death blow for Petra.
The Sassanid Empire from Persia attacked and overran what remained of the Byzantine Empire in the region in 609-628 CE. These wars wrecked the remaining urban settlements and trade activity in the area surrounding Petra. The city was reportedly used as a refuge by the Byzantines.
The final abandonment of Petra came with the spread of Islam across Arabia in the 7th century CE. As Muslim control expanded, trade routes shifted to favor cities along the coast of modern day Israel, Lebanon and Syria. Petra was left desolate in the neglected desert interior.
By the 8th century CE, accounts describe Petra as an abandoned city and make no mention of inhabitation or settlement among the empty temples and tombs. Its structures eventually collapsed due to earthquakes and erosion over time.
Petra was unknown to the Western world until the early 19th century. In 1812, it was introduced to the West by Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt. Descriptions of the empty, but magnificent ruins sparked intense curiosity, leading to archaeological excavations and tourism in the 20th century.
Geographic factors in Petra’s decline
In addition to historical factors like shifting trade routes, Petra’s geographic location ultimately worked against the city after its initial establishment. Located deep in the desert interior of Jordan, Petra was isolated from major population centers and access to water was limited. The city relied on an ingenious system of dams, cisterns and ceramic pipes carved into the sandstone to collect and store rainwater. As trade income declined and the infrastructure fell into disrepair, supporting a large population in the desert became unsustainable.
Petra was also vulnerable to earthquakes due to its position near the boundaries of the Arabian and African tectonic plates. A series of devastating earthquakes likely damaged critical infrastructure in the city. Without the resources to rebuild, the unstable desert location became uninhabitable.
Water scarcity
Water scarcity is a major challenge in the barren desert surrounding Petra. With limited sources of fresh water, it was difficult to sustain a large population without effective water management systems. As the city declined, the maintenance of pipes, dams and cisterns lapsed. Access to clean water dwindled further, accelerating the abandonment.
Seismic activity
The tectonic plate boundaries near Petra make the area prone to high seismic activity and earthquakes. A series of quakes likely damaged buildings, cisterns and water systems. Without the resources or population to carry out repairs, the earthquake damage contributed to making the settlement uninhabitable.
Harsh desert conditions
Petra’s desert location presented challenges to long term habitation. The barren, arid environment made farming and agriculture difficult. Access to food and resources was limited without extensive trade networks in place. As trade income declined, feeding the local population became unsustainable.
Political factors in Petra’s abandonment
In addition to geographic challenges, a series of political factors also contributed to Petra’s downfall over time.
Loss of Nabataean autonomy
Petra flourished when the Nabataean kingdom was independent and profited from trade between the Mediterranean, Arabia, India and China. The kingdom’s annexation by Rome in 106 CE reduced the economic power of Petra. Subject to imperial rule, the Nabataeans lost their independent kingdom and right to capitalize on trade routes.
Shift of trade to maritime routes
As sea trade expanded under the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire, overland trade through Petra became less important. With less merchant traffic, the city lost its position as a vital economic center.
Spread of Islam in Arabia
The spread of Islam across Arabia in the 7th century CE resulted in another political shift away from Petra. As Muslim control expanded, cities on the Mediterranean coast supplanted inland Petra as political and economic hubs.
Circumstances of Petra’s rediscovery
After centuries in obscurity, the deserted ruins of Petra were brought to the attention of the Western world in 1812 by the Swiss explorer Johann Burckhardt. Accounts of the magnificent ancient city hidden away in the Jordanian desert created intrigue and excitement around its archaeological potential.
Some key points about the rediscovery:
- Johann Burckhardt was a Swiss explorer and archaeologist who traveled extensively across the Middle East in the early 19th century documenting ancient sites.
- To gain access to the remote region around Petra, he disguised himself as a Muslim pilgrim.
- He convinced his Bedouin guides to take him to the ruins of the lost city, which were shrouded in mystery and superstition.
- Burckhardt was stunned by the elaborate facades and tombs carved into the colorful sandstone cliffs.
- His published account in 1822 brought the ancient city to the attention of the Western world.
- Only local Bedouin tribes knew of Petra’s existence before Burckhardt documented it.
- Burckhardt’s memoir sparked campaigns by archaeological teams to survey and excavate the ruins throughout the 19th century.
Although local Bedouin groups were aware of Petra’s ruins, the site remained largely forgotten until Burckhardt’s pivotal expedition documented the city for modern scholarship. Burckhardt’s publishing of Petra sparked a period of intense curiosity and archaeological interest.
Timeline of Petra’s history
Petra has a long and storied history as a center of trade, culture and architectural achievements in antiquity. Here is an overview timeline:
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| 6th century BCE | Petra becomes capital of Nabataean Arabs |
| 4th century BCE | Petra grows wealthy from trade routes |
| 1st century BCE | Nabataean kingdom at its peak |
| 106 CE | Nabataean kingdom annexed by Rome |
| 2nd century CE | Petra declines as trade shifts to sea routes |
| 4th century CE | Earthquakes damage Petra’s infrastructure |
| 7th century CE | Petra abandoned after spread of Islam in Arabia |
| 1812 CE | Petra rediscovered by explorer Johann Burckhardt |
Conclusion
In conclusion, Petra’s demise was a gradual process that unfolded over centuries, not an overnight collapse. A wide array of factors combined to drive people to abandon the desert city. Shifting trade routes and new maritime trade undercut its economic importance. Political changes such as Roman and Islamic rule directed attention away from inland Petra. Earthquakes and the isolated desert environment also took their toll. The rediscovery of Petra by Burckhardt in 1812 shed light on the magnificent ruins and launched a new era of archaeological study to uncover its secrets.